EXCLUSION AND DISCRIMINATION IN THE LABOR MARKET

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Although it may be difficult to “prove” that discrimination exists in the labor market,
most people would acknowledge the fact that it does exist. However, others opine that the job
an individual secures or the salary they are paid depends, to some extent, on the kind of
person one is and the circles they associate with (Berry & Bell, 2012). The insidiousness,
imperviousness, and complexity surrounding the issue of exclusion and discrimination are
intricate as they are difficult to separate. In the past, the idea of the differential labor market
has focused on race, gender, ethnicity, and religion.
Recently, this bracket has expanded to include age, sexual orientation, and disability
status. Economic and sociological theories have been used to explain the labor market as
being a social entity. Economic theories, for instance, differentiate between the demand for
labor and its supply. However, according to Pager, Western, and Bonikowski (2009), if the
effects of macro-level norms are taken into account, this differentiation is blurred. This is
evident in the significant differences in labor force participation of women based on region,
ethnicity, religion, and social status all around the world. In South Asia for example, female
participation in the labor market is particularly low especially in the case of Muslim women
and is made worse by the practice veiling women.
It is believed that the “code” of discrimination is often hidden to the extent that even
those executing the discrimination act may not be aware they are doing due to the fact that it
is engrained in social norms. It is true that what may not have been considered as
discrimination in the workplace several years ago, may be regarded as one today. For
instance, what may be considered as harassing behavior today, were normal years ago. Even
after the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, federal courts in the United States still did
not view sexual harassment as a form of discrimination (Berry & Bell, 2012).
Exclusion and discrimination may take numerous forms with many being intangible
and some being invisible; thereby, making them un-measurable. Conscious discrimination 
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occurs when the hiring process is predetermined for a particular type of worker to be hired.
However, there can be unconscious discrimination or exclusion when hiring. Promotion or
remuneration decisions are based on stereotypes and prejudice. For example, the notion that
African American workers are “lazy” or that women have low commitment are internalized in
a society that many consider them as truisms (Pager, Western, & Bonikowski, 2009).
These stereotypes infiltrate hiring authorities and in turn have a significant effect on
the entire hiring process, no matter how innocent it may be. Measuring exclusion and
discrimination are made more difficult by the fact that they may be overt or covert. In the case
of overt discrimination and exclusion, a firm may advertise jobs by openly asking for women
to fill certain positions or indicate differences in retirement ages for men and women
(International Labor Organization, 2011). On the other hand, covert discrimination sorts
occupational sex segregation into “females” and “males.” This makes covert discrimination
difficult to observe. Finally, discrimination and exclusion may be perceived or real. Perceived
discrimination is in most cases because of historical inequalities that reduce specific groups to
lower cadres in the social hierarchy. Consequently, such groups will collectively perceive
themselves as being discriminated against in the labor market. With real discrimination, there
has to be observable evidence of the discrimination, empirically or policy wise.
Despite the fact that discrimination and exclusion may be hard to substantiate, changes
in the work conditions may encourage participation of excluded groups, even when such
changes may not be aimed at ending discrimination in the labor market. All around the world,
a shift towards transparency and openness has led to the increase in confidence of nonpreferred groups. Overall, a better understanding is required on the role that norms and
attitudes play on non-discrimination if governments, firms, and individuals formulate better
policies to reduce discrimination and exclusion in the labor market (International Labor
Organization, 2011).
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References
Berry, D., & Bell, M. P. (2012). Inequality in Organizations: stereotyping, discrimination, and
labor law exclusions. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal,
31(3), 236-248.
International Labor Organization. (2011). Equality at work: The continuing challenge. Global
Report under the follow-up to the ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and
Rights at Work. International Labor Conference.
Pager,